IBA Final Paper Group

In this simulation, we were tasked with successfully launch info Alleles in new markets over the next 7-10 years, effectively expanding the Alistair Brand into Latin America. Alistair Brands is doing well in its traditional markets of Western Europe, North America, and Australia, but the markets IR those countries are mature with lots of competition. Latin America is a region that provides great potential and a variety of trade enhancement actions have been struck in recent years. NONFAT for example, reduced the trade barriers between the United States, Mexico, and Canada.This allows for establishing production in Mexico to take advantage of low labor costs and seamless access to the U. S. And Canadian markets. The MERCURY agreement also provides similar ease of access among the South American countries of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. These factors combined make Latin America a ripe market for Alistair Brands to enter. Initially, we entered the Mexican market and created five SKU that covered all four benefits to test the market for each type of benefit, as well as wanting to implement SKU that none of our competition was using, such as economy gel.Our primary target markets were families with kids focused on economy, and younger focused on whitening. No one had tapped into the kid's market, SC we created a SKU to fill that demand, which also created a niche in the mark hat We dominated. Our primary channels Were the traditional and hyper- market, with a small section focused in web. The traditional channel had the largest number of outlets; thus, we allocated 25 sales people to that channel and it generated 12. 1 % of our sales.Hypermarket had only one competitor and had the most growth potential, while the web had no real competition. We positioned ourselves in regards to pricing towards the lower spectrum with a 5% allowance. We set our MSP at double our production cost, still maintaining an economy price by being priced lower than our competito rs. Striving to get our name out there in the initial period, we also spent SSL 50 million in promotion and $76 million in advertising and our ad campaigns focused on highlighting two of our SKU (younger/white and families/ economy).Over the course of the simulation we entered three more Latin American countries (Brazil, Argentina, and Chile), built a plant in Brazil, left the traditional channel and entered the wholesale channel, changed SKU and pricing, discontinued and created new ads in all countries, tried to make our products standard in each country, exited a country that was not performing ell, and added new products to our existing product lines. After implementing and tweaking our marketing plan each year in the simulation, we ended the simulation with a BEE of 76. We saw a 6. % growth in unit sale 18. 3% growth in manufacturer sales, 29. 7% growth in gross margin, and 60. 3% growth in net contribution. We finished in fifth place with a cumulative net contribution of $400. 6 million. In the following few pages, we will demonstrate what our marketing plan was and how we implemented it in each year Of the simulation from beginning to end to effectively demonstrate owe our decision criteria led us to the position that we ended in. Situation Analysis Throughout the study, the opportunities and threats varied among the 1 0 decision making periods.However, threats were mostly, actively controlled by a third party stimulator, while the opportunities describe our reaction to openings in the market for potential revenue. For example, a population product benefit without a SKIS to squelch the market need provided a clear opportunity for a new SKU with an updated promotional budget and campaign. The opportunities listed below detail the groups research for opportunities as well as the active response. After a forced entry in the Mexico market, one of the first opportunities was the cheap tariff and shipping costs from the US to Mexico. With a 0. % tariff, as a percent of CIFS and a shipping cost of approximately two cents per unit, entry into the market provided a strong base to grow our brand. There were also free trade agreements between the US and Mexico, making distribution, cost effective and permittivity seamless. With Brazil economic boom, it was impossible to ignore the specific opportunities in this market. With a surge in population, there began to arise product benefits that were not being met by competing products. Therefore, Alleles responded by implementing a SKIS that filled the family/healthy/ economy and size gap, as well as the kids market.With space in the hypermarket and web. The Alleles group capitalized on these channels and spiked the promotional budget to raise product awareness and our resulting As the success in Brazil continued, Alleles constructed a second plant in period 3 that would offset the high shipping costs to the later entered, Argentinean an Chilean, markets, combined with a free trade agreement. Furt her, entry into the Brazilian, Argentinean and Chilean market was titivated by low transportation costs and tariffs. However shipping costs, from the home plant, did not prove a lucrative. With an opportunities analysis, a weakness analysis must follow.Because Alleles was on a first mover into the South American toothpaste market, the company missed out on many of the advantages awarded to competitors, such as the ability to set standards concerning product expectation, the bill ¶y' to educate the public about the product, and capitalize on unused distributors and suppliers. However, these weaknesses also provided an opportunity for Alleles to responds in self-benefiting methods. First, being a late entering competitor to an already established market, much of the risk was alleviated associated with introducing existing markets to new products.There was also less of a need for an educational promotional budget. Alleles was allowed to piggyback off of the market penetration of earl y entry competitors. Another additive that come with entering a market post-establishment, is the ability to put pressure on existing products, forcing them to make adjustments to account increased market competitor. Some of the changes included, price reductions, increasing sales force and raising advertising expense, all efforts to attempt to solidify their, now threatened, position in the market.The Alleles response to increased opportunity was to lesson dependence on a single market by entering others. Finally, market threats perpetually interrupted the opportunity response progression for Alleles. For example, after entry into Chile, the brand began to notice a reoccurring cost that could not justify the company's market activity. Therefore, it became necessary to pull out of Chile in period 8. Also, the highly competitive arena in Brazil and Argentina provided the need to constantly adjust product SKILL, racing, production, promotion and advertising to account for competitor s uccess.The largest threat in the South American toothpaste market proved to reside in Venezuelan and Argentinean markets. Venezuela entered a recession walkway through the simulation, which prevented entrance from Alleles, and Argentina began to experience the impending effects of a recession, however, we had already invested too many resources to pull out of the country, so we had to adjust our skews to account for the change in shopping habits. Market Entry International market entry decisions are complicated. Most companies must rye to balance the benefits of increased control and the costs of resource commitment and risk [Country Manager].Factors such as international experience, firm size, market knowledge, and economic attractiveness must all be taken into account. Therefore, market entry is critical to Allele's success. Alleles is interested in entering Latin America. Due to its large population and a variety of trade enhancement actions (NONFAT, MERCURY) that have been estab lished in recent years Latin America has great potential. Before choosing which country to enter we wanted to perform a competitive analysis and selected macro-level indicators, such as economic development, to examine.We then weighed their importance. We also examined product markets, such as market size and the number of competitors. These can be seen in the country attractiveness analysis sheet in the appendix Of this report. After weighing all of our information, Alleles decided to enter Mexico market first. Alleles chose to enter Mexico through exporting the product from our home plant. Five Kiss were chosen to test the market for each type of benefit. We also wanted to implement SKU that no other competitor was using. Finally, we chose three distribution channels.In this first market, and I being essentially a test market, Alleles was somewhat successful in establishing our name in the market. After being in Mexico for a year, we decided to use the ‘X†tearful marke ting effect† to enter Brazil. Alleles chose Brazil because of its similarities to Mexico. Using a slight product adaptation, four SKU and three distribution channels were chosen for Allele's entry into Brazil. Continuing with the â€Å"waterfall marketing effect† and utilizing straight extension, we next entered Argentina. At this time we had been establishedMexico for a few years and in Brazil for one. With moderate success in previous markets, Alleles entered Argentina with the same SKU and distribution channels utilized in Brazil. We also weighed the cost and benefit of continuing to export from the home plant against the risk of building a plant locally to our markets. Indicators weighed in favor of building locally. Therefore, Alleles began building a plant in Brazil. In the fourth year of marketing in Latin America we decided not to enter a new market. We wanted to focus our time and attention on Mexico, Brazil AR Argentina, as well as the new plant.The plant also began to distribute to the Brazil and Argentina markets which lowered costs and increased profit. Year five did see a new endeavor for Alleles. We chose to enter the Chilean market further increasing our regional diversification.. The SKU and distribution channels were again a straight extension of the product. As we did in year four, years six and seven were spent focusing on our established markets. Alleles also took this time to increase capacity in our plant to accommodate the market need. Due to several issues, especially our sustained losses, Alleles exited Chill?s market.We had been in the country for three years and we continued to set in the red. Furthermore, after examining the competition, we knew it would take us years to compete as market leader and the markets in Brazil and Mexico had much greater potential. Exiting Chile was the last â€Å"market entry/exit† decision that Alleles made. We spent the new couple of years focusing on the markets that we had entere d and that were doing well. Overall, by utilizing the â€Å"waterfall† approach and using the money made in one market to help fund efforts in new markets, Alleles was successful with our market entries. Manufacturing location and sourcingThere were many factors to consider when our company was assessing the attractiveness of building a plant in another country. Political stability, shipping expenses, market economy, natural hazards and transportation were just a few indicators that needed to be examined. Understanding these influences enabled our company to make the right decision. Brazil is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations. It's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and Brazil is expanding its presence in world markets. Shipping costs from Brazil to it's neighboring countries is quite cheap.According to Country Manager, hipping from Brazil to Mexico is the highest at . 040. Therefore, We would continue to ship to Mexico from o ur home Plant and use the Brazilian Plant to ship to Argentina (. 020) and Chile (. 020). A local plant, which Brazil would be for all but Mexico, results in fixed costs from depreciation and the per unit (variable) cost of production. Country Manager cost analysis has Brazil at the head of the pack in terms of fixed cost (1 5% cost reduction). Furthermore, building in Brazil would result in a 0% tariff in regards to Argentina and Chile. Both of these indicators pointed favorably to building in Brazil.Natural hazards are present in every country, however, it is an indicator that must be taken into account. Brazil is home to droughts in the northeast and frost in the south. These particular natural hazards aren't very severe in terms of affecting shipping further making Brazil our top choice in Plant location. Transportation was an important factor we took into account when deciding where to build Allele's plant. Having the means to transport/ship the product to market is essential. Brazil is home to 4,000 airports, 28,857 km of railways and 1 , 751 ,868 km of roadways and this doesn't take into account its shipping ports.Because there are so many options for transporting goods, the cost of goods sold can be kept reasonable. Utilizing all of these indicators, it was clear that Alleles should build in Brazil. The plant's capacity was set to the projected unit sales in Brazil for the following period because we did not want to have a large excess which would lead to avoidable loss. However, we increased our plant production capacity by 50 million units (100 million units total) after one year. This was done to meet the demand of our past sales and accommodate for our forecasted sales.We also began distributing to Argentina from our Brazil plant in effort f decreasing shipping and tariff expenses. As each period progressed we assessed the plant's capacity and adjusted accordingly, for example, we increased our plant production capacity again by 40 million units (1 40 million units total) in order to accommodate our entry into Chile. Once this capacity increase was accomplished there were no changes made to the production capacity for one year because our capacity perfectly lined up with the amount of units sold in Chile, Argentina, and Brazil.However, the following year we increased production capacity by 15 million units to accommodate projected unit sales and a further 55 million units, eased on our need forecast for the next period, the year after that. With Alleles exiting Chile in year eight, we did not increase our plant capacity again. Building our plant in Brazil proved to be a success. Alleles was able to put pressure on all other competitors, especially other domestic companies. This helped drive share of mind and sales leadership in Brazil – enabling us to more effectively compete with the local and regional competitors which were two of the market leaders.Target Marketing Strategy Target marketing strategy was an important part to make Alleles achieve success when we enter and explore a new country. In target marketing strategy, we have to determine our main potential customers, try to attract attention from them, raise our target customers' interests, convince our customers' desires and lead our customers purchasing. Therefore, we had used MIMIC and AID (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) model to help Alleles make a right target marketing strategy for each country that we entered. Mexico Alleles chose enter Mexico market first.Based on data provided from cross- section decision analysis in Mexico, price was customer most care about with 50. % weight and product effect was second with 27. 6%. For demographic, the families was most demographics population which was 55. 9% Of customers with 62. 2% of demand. The younger was second largest demographic population (27%) with 23. 7% of demand. See demographics with benefits, families/economy are largest market with 34. 6%pop and 36. 7% demand; younger/wh ite are second with 6. 9% pop and 10. 2% demand. By benefits view, the economy and white are majority benefits that Mexican customers would like to buy.

How To Write A Research Paper Essay

This guide covers research papers, and provides advice on forming a title for your research paper, how to plan your paper before you start, and filtering material for your research paper. What is a research paper? The terms ‘research paper’ and ‘term paper’ are frequently used interchangeably. However, the terms do not mean the same thing. ‘Term paper’ was used in the past exclusively to refer to the project (indeed research based) that was due at the end of a term, semester or quarter whereas ‘research paper’ had a more specific meaning, i.e. a paper written as a summary of research. Hence ‘research papers’ may be written at any level (before, during and after attending university), they may be published works in a professional journal and they may represent the results of practical research, which would not ordinarily be conducted for a term paper. This is the context in which we will discuss the term ‘research paper’ herein. A research paper is an academic written assignment that is the product of a research project. This may span days, months, weeks or even years. Typically, research papers will involve the examination of a particular issue, and discuss: * The background or history of that issue * Any outstanding questions relating to the issue (the research paper will commonly focus on one particular question and seek to establish evidence to answer this) * The current data and statistics relating to the issue * The problems relating to the issue as revealed by the data * The problems relating to the issue as revealed by practical primary research (i.e. carrying out interviews, tests etc) or secondary research (i.e. looking at other people’s research) * Proposed solutions to the problems, and the strengths and weaknesses of these * Conclusions drawn from the data, research and evidence, as examined * Recommendations in relation to these conclusions. We will look at each of these elements in turn, in order to understand how a student or professional can write a good research paper. Forming a title for your research paper Unlike most types of assignment, the research paper title is usually decided upon AFTER you have completed the paper. This is so that the title accurately reflects the contents of the paper. However, your research paper will need a working title. This helps you to focus and helps others to understand what you are doing – for example, your lecturer/instructor or, if working at a higher level, those funding your project. You should therefore return to this section when you have completed your paper. You then need to pick a concise, accurate title for your research paper that will make readers want to look at your content, help others find your paper in databases, and explain exactly what is covered by the paper with a high degree of accuracy. A research paper will commonly have a title of 15-20 words in length. Every word must be necessary for the title – and so for example, ‘Project on†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ‘Paper on†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ‘Research on†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ should be removed as these types of phrases are not necessary. Example concise research paper titles: * Unemployment by Constituency * Transport in New York Research Paper Subtitle Unlike a research paper or essay, it is very common to give your research paper a subtitle. This explains your title more fully, puts it in context and qualifies the extent, or scope, of the research. Example subtitles (relating to the above example titles): * 2007-2008 trends using constituency maps * Transport governance and provision since X was elected in 1999 Researching/gathering information for your research paper As your research paper needs to show a good depth of reading, good research skills are paramount! But before you start, a key thing to bear in mind is that you MUST reference all material that you use in your paper. So the first thing to do is find out what referencing style is required (either by your university or, if you are writing a research paper for a journal, by that journal) and start to record the location of your sources using that referencing style. If you do this as you perform the research, you’ll save yourself hours of time later on. Here are some research tips to get you started: RESEARCH STEP 1 * Form a list of keywords from your research paper’s working title * Use a thesaurus to find words that mean the same thing as your list of keywords RESEARCH STEP 2 Most students will begin researching using the Internet and indeed, this is a great way to get ideas for your research paper. So start with Google, type in your keywords and bookmark the most relevant information sites that appear in relation to the issue. Then identify all current matters that relate to your issue from those sites. Note: Internet websites provide a fast source of up-to-date information but unfortunately they are not a reliable source. Use a search of the web as a starting point but unless the website is hosted and edited by a ‘reliable’ organization (such as the Government), don’t rely on its contents as a source for your research paper. Find another means of verifying the information. RESEARCH STEP 3 Now you’ve identified a list of issues and current debates for your research paper, you need to find some quality source material. The first stage is to find the most recent books written about the issue you’re researching. Whilst books are not as up-to-date as journals and articles, they will contain valid points-of-view that need to be considered. So where do you find books for your research paper? * Google Books – this is a good place to start as it has several thousand books that have been scanned in, together with details and snippet views of those which haven’t been scanned in. * Amazon.com – Amazon is a good source because you can see which books are being released, and their release date, as well as using ‘search inside’ to look through the contents of many books (this latter service only works if you have placed an order before) * Questia – Questia has thousands of books scanned in although you have to pay a small subscription fee. Your university may also provide you with access to a library and you can then search through their databases to find the most relevant and recent books for your research paper. The best way to scan whether a book is relevant to what you’re writing about is to look through the index. You’ll quickly see if there’s anything useful in the book for your research paper. RESEARCH STEP 4 Now you have the latest books for your research paper, you need to start looking for journals. These really should be your main type of source material. Open University Web Resources is an excellent list of such journal databases, although you’ll need an ATHENS password to use some of them. Our favorite journal databases for consistently excellent and up-to-date content are: * ScienceDirect – 2,000 peer-reviewed journals, books, handbooks etc * EBSCO- thousands of journals, millions of articles * Emerald- thousands of journals in management and library and information services, engineering, applied science and technology * Ingenta – 4,500+ journals in all fields and a further 20,000 abstracts The latter source, Ingenta, gives you FREE access to the bibliography which is useful for your research paper even if you don’t have an athens login. Locate articles relating to your subject and check out the bibliography for further reading which you might be able to locate online without passwords. You can sometimes obtain a free trial of these databases giving you temporary access. Also, the four websites also have a good number of journals that you do not need a subscription to view. These are often indicated by a special icon. For example (from Ingenta): RESEARCH STEP 5 There is one final type of source material you need to consider, and that is the news. If you’re lucky enough to have an athens password, your first stop will be Lexis Professional (formerly known as LexisNexis Executive) which contains the full text of newspapers and other news sources worldwide; as well as company data, annual reports and business directory information from Disclosure, Extel, ICC, and Worldscope. If you don’t have an athens password, any good news site will suffice – US News, CNN etc. Of course, if you are researching an issue which affects another country, you should be looking at that country’s main news website. What you are looking for is any current developments that may affect the research for your paper. This may be statistics released by the Government, consultation papers, proposed changes in legislation, current developments or debates etc. Don’t forget, newspapers are NOT a reliable source of information. You are using them to find information for your research paper but you should substantiate this information once you have found it. If it is reported that the Government has released some statistics, go and find those on the Government website. If a consultation paper has been released, go and find the paper and read it. Filtering the material for your research paper The five step research process reveals a lot of information for your research paper and you’ll need to filter it down, or you’ll have too much to analyses. This does, however, beg the question – how many sources should you use? The answer to this depends on the level of your research paper. If it is an assignment for your degree, you should look at using roughly 9 quality sources per 2,500 words. If it is for some post-graduate course, you can easily double that. A professional research paper (for publication) might use 30-40 sources per 2,500 words. The emphasis in all cases, however, should be on quality and not on quantity. A good selection of research material from a variety of quality sources (i.e. not just books, not just journals, not just the internet and not just the news) is far better than a huge selection of research material from poor quality, unreliable sources of a similar type. To help filter the information you have found for your research paper, you are going to need to evaluate its quality. This involves a consideration of whether: * The source is a quality source -it’s reliable, dependable and highly likely to be accurate. * The source is unbiased – watch newspapers which may have political views. Ask yourself if the writer has presented a balance argument, or has deliberately played down one side of the argument to prove his own personal views. * The source is relevant to your research – does it specifically tie in with your working title? * You haven’t already got enough material to prove what this source proves – if you aim to back up each of your arguments in your research paper with 2-3 pieces of evidence (for a very high quality paper) or at least 2 for a student paper, then you can filter out any material that is excessive of this. Creating an outline for your research paper A basic outline will look something like this: * Working title (as discussed previously) * Purpose – this is a short statement to say what the paper is for. It helps people who are looking for research papers themselves to assess the relevancy of your research paper to their studies. Example purpose statement: This paper shows the number of people claiming benefits recorded as resident in each constituency in the United States in July 2008, together with comparisons with the levels in July 2007 and July 1997. This paper also presents residence-based unemployment rates for all constituencies in the United States. * Methodology – this is a statement of how you will carry out your research. You have already done some ‘secondary research’ but you may also wish to carry out ‘primary research’ for your paper. Primary research (sometimes called ’empirical research’) is research you carry out yourself and data that is produced as a result of this, which has never been published before. Primary research may be carried out through face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, postal surveys, website surveys or focus/discussion groups. Be careful before carrying out research over the phone or through the post though – some states allow people to restrict how they are contacted. Secondary research is the study of data that exists already such as books, journals, statistics, other research papers, websites, news reports, magazine articles etc. You have already carried out secondary research through the five step research process. So which research method is best for your research paper? Instinctively you may think that the primary data will provide the most interesting results. However, if your time and budget are both limited, do not be tempted to embark on a study. You will do far better analyzing existing studies than producing a low-quality study that is limited in its value due to the amount of time and finance you can devote to it. * Scope of research – all research is going to be limited to certain factors. A paper on ‘crime’ cannot investigate all types of crime, committed by all sexes, all ages, globally. So how are you going to limit your paper? What areas of the issue will you look at and which will you discard? Your statement of scope will be about 150-300 words long and explain exactly what you are going to cover in your research, and what you are going to leave out (usually with brief reasons). If you are carrying out primary research, you may want to set out the limitations of this here too. * Introduction – this is where you set the scene for your reader. You explain what you are researching and why. You identify the issues you will be looking into and you say what you are going to prove. It is therefore a good idea to write this last, along with your final title! * Background/history – this section of your research paper isn’t essential but might be appropriate. You might want to explain the development of the issue and how particular matters have arisen. Don’t bother unless it is necessary, to put the matter in context. * Body – this section of your research paper will be broken up into sub-sections, each dealing with a particular sub-matter. Aim to present balanced evidence in each section on the points you wish to raise, and try not to reach any conclusions at this stage. The ‘body’ is the body of your research, not the analysis. * Findings/Discussion – here’s where you analyze the research you have conducted and say how your findings are relevant to the issue. It’s a very important section, without which you will have merely stated other people’s findings and opinions without contributing anything yourself. * Conclusion – this section of your research paper returns to the introduction and stated aims, and spells out very clearly how you achieved them, referring to the points you have proved and the evidence you have used to prove it. It should not be repetitive but instead, it should summarize the results of your research. You should also ensure no new material is introduced at this stage – if you have new material for your research paper, put it in the body and findings sections. * Recommendations – this section of your research paper is very much optional and will depend on whether such a section would be appropriate for the subject you are studying. Law research papers almost always will include recommendations. What sort of recommendations should you make? These might include: * How policies/the law/practice should be changed, based on your findings * What further research must be carried out before making any sensible recommendations. Your recommendations must actually relate to what you have established in your research paper. You cannot randomly introduce things at this stage that you think might be useful. They must be logical recommendations, based on your research and analysis, and they should follow on from the conclusion. Now you have written out an outline for your research paper, you will literally be able to ‘fill in the blanks’ and your paper should evolve and progress naturally, following the headings you have chosen. Keep referring back to your working title as you write, as well as to your methodology and scope. This should limit you to material that is most relevant and ensure you don’t include excessive, unnecessary points. Finishing your research paper Now you’ve written up your research paper, you’ll need to do a little editing and proofreading to ensure the finished product achieves the grade you’re looking for. This includes: * Weeding out any unnecessary material. Evaluate what you have written and whether it is needed, keeping the methodology, scope and working title in mind * Proofreading your research paper. Read it out loud, have someone else read it for you, run a spell check, run a grammar check – go over the paper several times and make sure you haven’t made any errors. There are often extra marks for students in respect of presentation. * Checking your referencing. Every source should be properly referenced. Quotations should be in â€Å"quotation marks†. Your work should contain a full list of references and a bibliography. References are sources you actually cite in your work whereas the bibliography includes sources which you may have read, and may have influenced your writing, but you haven’t specifically cited.

The Historical Development of the Electric Train Essay

The Historical Development of the Electric Train - Essay Example Electricity is used as a substitute to provide power hence eliminating smoke and taking advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors. This paper seeks to describe the historical development of the electric train in the world of technology. In 1879, Werner von Siemens who was a German engineer presented the first practical passenger train at Berlin which used electricity to operate. In the same year, the first electric railway was demonstrated at the Berlin Trades Fair. The locomotive was driven by approximately a power of 2.2 KW series wound motor and the train which consisted of the locomotive and three cars. This locomotive could reach a maximum speed of 13 km/h. In 1881, the world’s first public electric tram line was opened in Berlin, Germany, and it was named Gross- Lichterfelde Tramway. It was built by Werner von Siemens. In 1883, Modling and Hinterbruh Tram opened near Vienna in Austria as the first electric tram line. This tramline used electricity served from a n overhead line to operate. Also in 1883, Volk’s electric railway was opened in Brighton, Britain. ... This line opened in 1890, using electric locomotives which were built by Mather and Platt. In fact, electricity grew quickly and became the power supply of choice for subways, which were assisted by the Sprague’s invention of the multi- unit train control in the year 1897. The surface and the elevated transit systems used steam until they were forced to convert by the law. The first and foremost electrification on the mainline was actually on a four- mile stretch of the Baltimore Belt Line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) in 1895. This track was very crucial in connecting the main portion of the B&O to the newly built line to the New York and it required a series if tunnels around the edges of Baltimore’s downtown. Smoke from steam locomotives was becoming a nuisance on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Railroad entrances to New York City required tunnels and hence smoke problems were becoming worse. A collision in the Park Avenue tunnel in 1902 led to the New York Sta te legislature to outlaw the using of smoke producing locomotives after 1908. Consequently, electric locomotives began to operate in 1904 in the New York central Railroad. In 1930s, the Pennsylvania Railroad, which had actually introduced the use of electric locomotives because of the law, electrified its entire territory east of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The Chicago, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad which was the last transcontinental line to be built, electrified the lines across the Rocky Mountains and to the Pacific Ocean beginning in 1915. The East Coast lines such as the Virginia Railway, the Norfolk and the Western Railway found it useful to electrify short sections of the mountain crossings.

Enterprise and Entrepreneurial Management Essay - 5

Enterprise and Entrepreneurial Management - Essay Example Moovers and Shakers must focus heavily on internal human resources strategy to ensure that service staff members positively and enthusiastically represent the business brand. Their performances coupled with moderate and competitive pricing will help Moovers and Shakers gain market interest and achieve better profitability. Moovers and Shakers 1. Introduction Moovers and Shakers is a small, mobile food service business that will be serving Coventry, the 12th largest city in the UK maintaining a population of 316,900 as of 2011 (Coventry City Council 2012). Coventry maintains a diverse variety of different commercial centres, stadiums for sporting events, and five colleges and universities that will assist in sustaining profit for the business. Moovers and Shakers will consist of three mobile food carts, staffed in different locations within the boundaries of Coventry operating between the hours of 11am and 8pm, except during special events (e.g. sporting, school functions or arts and drama) in order to capture lunch and dinner crowds; especially commercial professional customers. Moovers and Shakers will carry a limited, yet targeted menu consisting of hamburgers, gourmet franks, nachos and cheese, pretzels and accompanying frozen and fountain soft drinks. What makes Moovers and Shakers so extraordinary will be the moderate pricing structure and an emphasis on food serving flair provided by recruited operators (staff) to make the Moovers and Shakers dining a complete and interesting experience. Moovers and Shakers will be established as a sole trader organisation. This structure will provide the owner with more control over the business, ranging from administration to accounting, and this business structure requires much less regulatory restrictions and licensing necessary for a small start-up. The sole trader format also gives the business owner much more control over exit in the event that the business is not achieving expected profitability or in the event of the owner seeking a different business opportunity. This is due to the fact that the sole trader maintains 100 percent liability for the company. Until the business is able to expand, maintaining profit control for a single business owner is necessary to ensure proper wage accumulation without split capital. The key to success for Moovers and Shakers is food quality and variety, however it is the finesse and flamboyance of food preparation by the mobile cart operators that will gain customer interest and build more allegiance to the Moovers and Shakers brand identity. Mobile cart operators will operate the frozen drink machines and accessories much like a high-class bartender, putting on a display for customers during preparation. These expert employees with the skills for food prep panache will perform a variety of tossing and juggling when assembling the customers’ products, giving Moovers and Shakers a rapid reputation for a stylish food experience. As such, the business plan will focus on recruitment and retention needs as employees will be vital to building a positive brand and how to reduce risk of losing qualified, expert employees. The business plan will also rely heavily on advertising in order to compete. The business plan therefore focuses on models of marketing that are known to bring more buyer interest and how Moovers and Shakers intends to apply these lessons to this innovative mobile food business. The

Teaching Of English as a Second Language Research Paper

Teaching Of English as a Second Language - Research Paper Example To determine the stages of reading development, the researcher takes Joshua age 15 who is the 6th standard. Joshua is an immigrant to America. Joshua has difficulties in comprehending written words and his vocabulary is equivalent to a second grader. He is quite eager to learn when we first met him and this enthusiasm can be seen throughout the course. He does not understand most the words and he cannot express himself. He is an eager student and is quite determined to learn English. In his first session, the instructor accesses his English and she finds that his fluency in English is equal to the second-grade student. While assessing his language learning vocabulary progress, the instructor assesses Joshua’s power of vocabulary by observing him closely and monitors whether his use of technical vocabulary is good. This encourages Joshua to identify words that are connected in meaning. The influence of the primary language is always is very strong in Joshua. So when the instruc tor indicates a word in English, he tries to correlate its meaning in the primary language, the meaning is in one word. The teacher and the student refer dictionary often, to verify the similarities and differences among words in the various languages. The instructor also makes a list of words, to enrich his vocabulary. At first, Joshua struggle, but as it is quite difficult to nonnative English learners. In addition to assessing vocabulary, the instructor also uses traditional means such as multiple choice tests and matching items. While tracing the different strategies in learning vocabulary, the levels of difficulty also vary. Beginners can only observe things around them and name them, as they are known to them. Students in the second stage can describe verbally the meanings of the words in context, as they are more advanced in â€Å"target vocabulary.† The next stage is itch for advanced knowledge and finding related ideas to target vocabularies, using the choicest words .†

Mental Health Promotion Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mental Health Promotion Project - Essay Example This definition does not focus on the mere absence of illness or disease; but also on the presence of wellness on multiple factors. This concept is in opposition to the way in which many clinicians view the concept of health. Often the emphasis is on the absence of symptoms of illness; and medical professionals forget to attend to the presence of wellness. While this may or may not be as significant with illnesses of a purely physical nature; such a narrow perspective may not be adequate when dealing with problems that affect mental health. While House (2002) and Seeker (2005) claim that focusing on the symptoms and pathology helps keep a focus on resolution of symptoms and encourages a curer's approach; it needs to be mentioned that a person who is diagnosed and receiving help may be feeling better in part due to the fact that he or she is experiencing being cared for as against someone who is not receiving care. Squire (2002) has noted that someone who does not share the competenci es with the rest of the population could be termed as unhealthy; something that is rather unfair. A better definition is that of the Health Education Authority (HEA) (1997) which includes emotional and spiritual resilience. This is the factor that allows one to enjoy the experience of life and cope with pain (Squire, 2002; Jeanette, 2009). We may say that the WHO (2004) definition that mental health is a state of wellbeing is a more positive definition that focuses on the ability to cope with normal stressors and the ability to work in a fruitful and productive manner and to contribute to the society around them. Promoting Mental Health. Barry and Jenkins (2007) have found that a focus of developing mental health has helped in reducing the number of people diagnosed with mental disorders. It also has the positive impact of increasing the number who recover (Friedli, 2009). Promoting mental health can thus be defined as â€Å"Any action to enhance the mental well-being of individual s, families, organizations or communities (DH 2001).† The national service framework of 1999 has established certain standards of care that are designed to enhance the recovery experience of patients. Over time, the focus has been on not only reducing the extent and number of symptoms seen; but also on the growth of a wellness principle. This principle is one that guides the treatment and carer actions such that the emphasis is on overall recovery and health. Most policies for health care are aimed at the working population. This has many reasons; from the density of this population; to the contribution they make towards the running of the significant services, including the health services. The working population is also the population which contains the parents of minors – a population whose overall wellbeing is to some extent contingent on the wellbeing of the adults who influence their lives. Any country functions best when its working population is well and functio nal in that they participate in meaningful activities and have healthy relationships with people and elements of their lives. The ‘Quality Framework for mental health promotion (Health Education Authority, 1997) was put in place in order to ensure that mental health promotion projects are effectively planned, consistently delivered and properly evaluated. This

Do the courts (judges) make policy Should they Essay

Do the courts (judges) make policy Should they - Essay Example This has made it possible to make rulings that are up to the time, and work in favor of the situation at hand. Judicial activism should exist in order to allow courts make decisions without fear of reprisal or reprimand from policy makers, who tend to pass the buck whenever things are tough. It is sometimes difficult to put the blame on judges once they make a ruling on certain cases, especially after being thrown some of the hardest choices in legislations they sometimes have to contend with. Policy makers are always quick to spinelessly punt the courts with the toughest legislations hoping that they might make decisions to the best of their ability. Unfortunately, they are the first individuals to criticize and chastise the courts for their efforts whenever things go awry. The formulation of ambiguous legislation in most areas of the United States is what leads individuals to believe that judicial activism should exist in order to bring some sanity to the justice system. It is my belief that the courts (judges) make policy in a bid to shed some light on some of the ambiguous statutes that exist (Taylor, 2009). This paper will examine how judicial activism is exhibited in most courts, and how this aids the judicial system in its everyday functions. Every time a judge makes decisions based on the ambiguous statutes passed by the legislature, or gives contradicting facts about certain issues, the court (judge) is said to be engaging in judicial activism. For every defendant that is sent to trial, judicial activism comes into play. The truth of the matter is courts, especially courts of appeal, deal with numerous and countless ambiguous legislations. This means that in the passing of judgment, it may be next to impossible to pinpoint which area exactly the law should be implemented, and how it should be applied (Stone, 2012). In most cases, there is a lot to interpret, which means that judges have to make the call on what

Personal Essay Music Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Essay Music - Research Paper Example According to Philip Dorrell, the man who wrote the book ‘what is music?’ and has a B.Sc in mathematics, music is a voice that has very strong emotions that affect any person who listens to it (What is Music). Music is a form of art which utilizes the medium sound in a structured manner to attract the audience. Rhythm is the most important aspect of music which differentiates it from other noises. Music is enjoyable to all the people across the world even though the style of music might be different in different countries. The exact beginning of the music history is still unknown to human. We can assume that the music was evolved along with the evolution of the human itself. Holy Bible has cited an example in which David used his musical power to treat the disease of a king. There are different styles of music; Caribbean, Classical, Folk, Western, Jazz, Folk, Latin, R & B, Rock n Roll etc (Music Styles). Each style has its own value and importance even though classical mu sic has an upper hand in the music history. .

History Paper Q2 Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History Paper Q2 Globalization - Essay Example The possibility of cultural exchange, understanding and tolerance within a global civilization. But as many critics have noticed, we are not perfect human beings. It is hard to have a fair trade and conditions of equality between countries that do not know how to trade fairly with each other, but that exploit one another. By attempting to establish a standard, the differences have been reinforced. The richer get richer; the poor get poorer. The historical processes that led to this global movement can be traced to a series of economic agreements after the two world wars. "Globalization in the era since World War II has been driven by Trade Negotiation Rounds, originally under the auspices of GATT, which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on "free trade". The Uruguay round led to a treaty to create the World Trade Organization or WTO, to mediate trade disputes. Other bilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade. The other historical process that can be pointed out in the globalization phenomenon is the transmission of information.

The Office TV Show on Verbal and Non-verbal Communication Essay

The Office TV Show on Verbal and Non-verbal Communication - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that verbal and non-verbal communication is significant in our daily communication with friends, colleagues and other people we come into contact with everyday. Verbal communication is defined as the oral and written communication between people. Non-verbal communication is the type of communication that is neither spoken nor written. These include posture, actions, and body movements that mostly tell a lot more than words. Verbal and non-verbal communication is further subdivided into formal and informal language. Formal languages are often used in a formal setting such as business meetings, conferences, formal letters, memos and such. Informal communication, however, is the type of communication that we use in our everyday lives. In a person’s everyday interaction with other people, it is always important that these forms of communication are maximized. There is a famous saying â€Å"It is not what you say, but how you say it† that exemplifies the effective use of communication. The words that a person say may give one meaning and imply another depending on the tone of voice, posture and other factors that can imply a different meaning to the words one says. The TV show, The Office, exhibits the use of non-verbal communication more effectively rather than the words that were uttered in the scenes. In the episode, the people exhibited a lot of facial cues that expressed the people’s annoyance on the acting manager’s actions. There were also noticeable cues such as the way the acting manager would speak, his posture that somewhat depicted an annoying figure, the way he dressed and a lot of other things that made him somewhat a person to be irritated within the story. There was a segment in the episode that showed one guy crying over a girl he wanted to date, and what it effectively did was to show his anguish. The words he was uttering were a little incoherent but his actions and facial exp ressions showed his anguish. Even if there were no words to back it up, it would have still been understandable. In an office setting, one would expect that a person would speak with colleagues in a formal way especially if they are in a formal setting like meetings and other similar occasions but there are instances that colleagues sometimes become friends or have an easy camaraderie. That is the time that factors such as proximity, boundaries of topic, specific place for conversations and actions become less restrained. In the show, the impression that one could gather from it is that it is a somewhat formal setting with an informal environment. The people were a little less rigid, the stance is less relaxed, words used are less formal, although there were instances that the words and tone of voice indicates a formal type of communication, it mostly showed an easy camaraderie between colleagues. In maintaining interpersonal relationships in an office setting, one has to be dressed according to the image that is not only appropriate but also shows a certain type of individuality. A person makes an impression of another by how they appear to them, as such, appearance and dressing well is a good practice. It shows professionalism and credibility not only to colleagues but also to other people that one may interact with either in a formal or informal setting. In the case of the show, the acting manager may have an authority over others but his posture, the way he dressed and the manner of which he spoke depicted otherwise. It is also important to ensure that one addresses another in a way that is appropriate; the tone of voice plays a big factor as well. There are instances that the tone of voice becomes monotonous when speaking about something that is business related but one must also keep in mind that varying the pitch, tone and manner of speaking gives emphasis on whatever one says.

Jesus and Mary Essay Example for Free

Jesus and Mary Essay During the last forty years, there has been an increased desire between Catholics and other Christians to discuss the theological positions that have separated us. The Catholic Church’s teachings on Mary have been a crucial element in the discussions that have taken place. There are many hopeful signs of mutual understanding, including a new appreciation for the Scriptural and Patristic presentations of Mary, as well as the writings, homilies and hymns of the Reformers on Mary. There is a better understanding of what the Catholic Church actually teaches about Mary as well as a better appreciation by Catholics of the theological questions that are raised by other Christians regarding Mary. In this environment, scholars from different traditions have reflected upon Mary’s role as a collaborator of God in salvation history as well as her role in the Communion of Saints. One very significant effort has been that of four Lutheran, four non-Lutheran Protestants and four Catholic Biblical Scholars, which produced the book, Mary in the New Testament, (New York: Paulist, 1978). Other noteworthy ecumenical works on Mary have been: Mary for All Christians by the Anglican theologian, John Macquarrie (1990); Mary through the Centuries, lectures of the noted scholar Jaroslav Pelikan, at Yale University (1996); Mary is for Everyone, papers given at four International Congresses of the Ecumenical Society of the Blessed Virgin Mary (1997); and Blessed One, Protestant Perspectives on Mary, edited by Beverly Roberts Gaventa and Cynthia L. Rigby. In reexamining the writings of the original Reformers, scholars have uncovered more sympathy among the Reformers regarding Mary than succeeding generations may have had, as the divisions hardened between what was Catholic and what was Protestant. Catholics and Protestants might be surprised to learn of Martin Luther’s reverence for Mary, as can be seen in his Commentary on the Magnificat, written in 1521. Between 1983 and 1990, Catholics and Lutheran theologians met to discuss the issues related to intercession, the saints and Mary. The summary of these discussions was published inThe One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary: Lutherans and Catholics in Dialogue VII (1992); Since 1937, Protestant pastors and Catholic priests from France and Switzerland have conducted an ongoing dialogue on ecumenical issues. Initially, they first met at the Cistercian abbey of Notre Dame des Dombes, twenty miles north of Lyons, from which came the name of the group. Presently the group consists of twenty Lutheran or Reformed pastors and twenty Catholic priests. They are a private association, which meets yearly. Over the years, they have issued a number of documents on various theological issues. Between 1991 and 1997, they reflected on Mary’s role in salvation. The English edition of their reflections, Mary in the Plan of God and in the Communion of Saints, was printed in 2002. On February 2, 2004, a document was signed by the members of the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), entitled Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ as a statement of the commission which was then submitted to the Pontifical Commission for Promoting Christian Unity and to the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Anglican Consultative Council for further study and evaluation. The document was issued on May 12, 2005, to be used for further study by the churches. It is available on the Vatican website (www.vatican.va) through the Pontifical Council for promoting Christian Unity. While much progress has been made, the efforts at dialogue need to continue. Pope John Paul II, in his Encyclical, Ut Unum Sint, has included the Church’s beliefs about Mary among the five areas where fuller study is needed before there can be consensus in faith.[1] Two of the other areas, which the Pope identifies as principle issues, also relate to Marian dogma: the relationship between Scripture and tradition as well as the role of the Magisterium in teaching and safeguarding the faith.[2] We may ask what we intend to achieve by ecumenism. Is it negotiation by which each group agrees to give up something for the good of accommodating each other? Although some people may assume that this might be the process of ecumenism, the better approach is to strive to seek God’s truth together, wanting to have â€Å"the mind of Christ.† Christian unity will come through humbly seeking the unity that already is in God.[3] Christians who accept the truths of the Trinity and Incarnation must recognize that the Eternal Word was united with human nature in Mary. Mary was the location of the union of the divine and human in the one Person, Jesus. Underlying theological issues related to Marian beliefs: The concerns of non-Catholic Christians about Mary are not related simply to the person of Mary in herself but are related to other fundamental theological truths that served as the basis for the break at the time of the Reformation. Just as there were differences among the reformers there also are differences in the theologies of the various Protestant denominations. There are several key theological concerns which enter into the discussion of Mary. Luther’s approach to the â€Å"Justification† of Mary: Luther views Mary from the perspective of his theological principles by which the human person can never be said to possess any virtuous quality other than faith in the saving power of Jesus. Luther’s teachings on Mary are part of his understanding of the role of the saints in general for him, in which the saints and Mary are examples of what God can do with weak humanity. Luther explains his understanding of Mary within his theology of justification, emphasizing grace: â€Å"Mary also freely ascribes all to Gods grace, not to her merit. For though she was without sin, yet that grace was far too great for her to deserve it in any way. How could a creature deserve to become the Mother of God?†[4] It is noteworthy that Luther speaks of her as being â€Å"without sin.† Luther rejects the notion of merit since he emphasizes that our justification is completely the work of grace. He criticizes Catholic veneration of her as exalting her and so lowering the power of grace. He stresses that Mary does not want us to make an idol of her, stressing her merit, or looking for good things from her but to honor God and have confidence in His grace. [5] The Lutherans in the Lutheran-Catholic Dialogue questioned the practice of attributing virtues other than faith to holy persons based on their conviction that faith alone justifies and that Christ alone makes a person holy: â€Å"In Luthers exposition of the Magnificat, he exalts Mary because she faces her situation by faith alone. An attempt to use Mary or another Christian to extol any other virtue than faith raises the question of undermining living only by faith in Christ.†[6] Luther wrote: â€Å"I say Mary does not desire to be an idol; she does nothing, God does all.†[7] Luthers caution that our attention on Mary should not end with her but be directed to having more confidence in Gods grace may also be understood in a Catholic position. However, Catholics also ascribe all good to God, yet there is a difference in that we believe that God’s grace really changes us and enables to be cooperators with Him in doing good, always relying on His grace. The Catholic position on the way that grace works in our lives was brought out by the Council of Trent: â€Å"Justification consists not only in the forgiveness of sins but also in the sanctification and renewal of the inward being by a willing acceptance of the grace and gifts.† [8] The Council states that while God’s grace initiates and supports any good action, the person can either accept or refuse grace. [9] In 1998, Lutheran and Catholic leaders signed a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification seeking a greater convergence on the issues of justification. In the Lutheran tradition, God’s initiative is emphasized in justifying us while our response is that of our human freedom moved by grace.[10] If  the acceptance of justification is the first phase, a second phase follows, which is the carrying out of salvation.[11] Luther’s reflection on Mary’s purification in the temple is used by the Dombes Group to locate Mary’s good actions within the experience of being already ‘justified.’ Luther wrote: She was purified†¦although she was not bound by that law and did not need to be purified†¦. She was not justified by this work, but being righteous she did it freely and willingly. So also our works should be done, not that we may be justified by them, since, being justified beforehand by faith, we ought to so all things freely and joyfully for the sake of others.†[12] The Dombes Group seems willing to recognize Mary’s ‘cooperation,’ if it is seen within the perspective of justification by faith. It was because Mary had been justified by grace alone and in faith, that she could be associated with God’s work in Christ. Her ‘cooperation’ was unique in regard to the nature of what she did, for she was the mother of Jesus and raised him. She cooperated in the unique and universal event of salvation. But from the point of view of structure of her status, her ‘cooperation’ was not different from that of every person justified by grace. It was entirely the fruit of the grace of God.[13] As Catholics, we would emphasize both the grace of God in a good action as well as human freedom acting as it is aided by grace. Our cooperation is never separate from God’s help. Issue of human cooperation with God: Karl Barth, from the Reformed or Calvinist perspective, identifies the Catholic teachings on Mary as the prime example of Catholic principle on which â€Å"all their important positions are to be regarded and by which they stand and fall.† Reformed theology emphasizes the principle, sola gratia. According to  Barth, the Catholic teaching on Mary exalts human cooperation: In the doctrine and worship of Mary there is disclosed the one heresy of the Roman Catholic Church which explains all the rest. The mother of God of Roman Catholic Marian dogma is quite simply the principle, type, and essence of the human creature co-operating servantlike (ministerialiter) in its own redemption on the basis of prevenient grace, and to that extent the principle, type and essence of the Church. [14] Barth has accurately noted the relationship Catholics affirm in comparing Mary and the Church, since both the Church and Mary demonstrate creaturely co-operation with grace. He criticizes these Catholic positions on â€Å"creaturely co-operation† which is also related to the role of the church in cooperating with God: Not only does it need Christ, but in all seriousness Christ also needs it. As Mary inevitably co-operates in mans redemption as an intercessory power so does the Church in consummating the sacraments. the Church of the man who co-operates with grace on the basis of grace.[15] In fact, Barth has very accurately identified a fundamental Catholic principle that we cooperate with God. Barth objects to the notion not only of cooperation in good works but also of merit. Actually, the Catholic position is nuanced, taking human cooperation seriously enough to consider that our works are meritorious. Nevertheless, human cooperation has to be seen within the context of the Church’s teachings on the importance of grace in every good work, as Thomas Aquinas explains: â€Å"Man obtains from God as a reward of his operation, what God gave him the power of operation for†[16] John Macquarrie, an Anglican theologian, questions Barths objections by noting that even though ultimately salvation is the work of God, the human person is not a puppet or clay to be molded. As Macquarrie points out, the Marian teaching on the Immaculate Conception, is a clear illustration of salvation as a work of God’s grace since the one being conceived can only receive. Macquarrie points out that during her life Mary had the freedom to respond or not respond to God’s grace: Now it is the human consent and co-operation with God in the work of salvation that come to expression in the career of Mary. Not for a moment can one deny (or would one want to deny) that salvation is from God and is a work of grace, but God does not force His gifts upon us and we can become His covenant partners only if we give our glad and willing assent. [17] As Catholics, we believe, that a woman was preserved from sin by grace, and responded by faith and obedience aided by grace in co-operating in the birth and upbringing of the Son of God. She was made holy by grace but she also freely responded to that grace. As the analogy of Eve/Mary illustrates, Mary’s cooperation was not passive but active. The Dombes Group identified ‘human co-operation’ as an important theological issue. They saw Mary’s cooperation within her relation with the Three Persons of the Trinity: Mary’s ‘cooperation’ is the fruit of an initiative of the Father who looks upon the lowliness of his servant’ (Luke 1:48). It also the fruit of the ‘kenosis’ of the Son who ‘emptied himself†¦and humbled himself’ (Phil 2:7-8). Finally, it is the fruit of the action of the Spirit, who disposes Mary’s heart to be obedient. That is what happened at the moment of her fiat. Mary’s humility is the fruit of the Son’s humility.[18] Intercession: Luther recognizes intercession made to Mary: We ought to call upon her, that for her sake God may grant and do what we request. Thus also all other saints are to be invoked, so that the work may be every way Gods alone.[19] In fact, Luther begins the same homily, asking God to grant him a right understanding: â€Å"†¦through the intercession and for the sake of His dear Mother Mary!†[20] Nevertheless, Luther asserts that we cannot rely on the intercession of another person, â€Å"base your salvation on no other works than those God works in you alone, as you see the Virgin Mary do here. To let the intercessions of others assist you in this is right and proper; we ought all to pray and work for one another. But no one should depend on the works of others, without the works of God in himself.†[21] The Lutheran theologians who took part in the Lutheran-Catholic Dialogue expressed their concern regarding the invocations of the saints and of Mary, which they see as a challenge to the sole mediatorship of Christ, through whom God pours out grace in the Holy Spirit and the â€Å"justifying faith† of the believer.[22] The Lutheran members could accept the saints as examples of Christian life and faith. The Lutherans believe that angels and saints pray for us within the context of Jesus as the one mediator. [23] The Catholic participants in the Lutheran-Catholic Dialogue asserted that the mediation of Mary does not mean that Mary is a source of grace in herself but rather her merciful love is an â€Å"expression and reflection of the mercy of Christ himself.† [24] The Catholic members addressed the question of intercession by saying that Jesus â€Å"is never alone† but is always in the company of His friends, living and dead. Saints illustrate how God’s grace can work in us, they are patterns of holiness and they pray for us. In the Catholic view, we are bonded with millions of other believers throughout the world and throughout time. Those who have preceded us in faith are still connected with us.[25] Catholics see the practice of invoking the saints as an extension of the New Testament practice of intercession (Rom 15:30-32; 2 Cor 1:11; Eph 4:19; Col 4:3) and of the prayer of the righteous (Jas 5:16). Those in heaven have a heightened charity towards those on earth. Marys intercession has exception power because of her divine motherhood. It was recognized that â€Å"prayer† was being used in a broad sense when  directed to Mary and the saints. Protestants had no difficulty with â€Å"praise’ directed to God for the works God has done in Mary. This could even be seen as being done with Mary. For Catholics, intercession was seen as a form of communion. Catholics recognized there have been excesses in Marian piety, which have not been curbed by the Church’s leaders. Nevertheless, the most frequent invocation is to ask Mary to â€Å"pray for us, † in a similar way as the saints are asked to pray for us.[26] Catholics and Protestants agreed that Mary should be honored and God should be praised for the graces given to her. She should be imitated and we should unite ourselves in praising the Father through her. The Protestants were reluctant to invoke her whereas Catholics entrust themselves to her prayers.[27] The Anglican-Catholic Dialogue acknowledged that the English Reformers rejected the notion of the invocation of saints yet the Council of Trent reaffirmed it, emphasizing as it did so that such requests were made to God, â€Å"through his Son our Lord Jesus Christ, who is our sole redeemer and savior† (DS 1821).[28] The Anglican-Catholic document recognized that all ministries in the church, especially those of word and sacrament, mediate the grace of God through human beings. These ministries serve the mediation of Christ and have their power in it. Asking prayers of our brothers and sisters does not diminish the mediatorship of Christ but shows its power through the Spirit.[29] In the experience of communion of prayer, we are aware of the support of those living and dead. With this understanding, it seems that asking saints for prayers is not to be seen as â€Å"unscriptural,† although not directly taught by the scriptures as a required element. Our prayers are not addressed to the saints, but they are asked to pray for us, though this should not be done in a manner that blurs the Trinitarian economy of grace.[30] The authors of the Anglican-Catholic document state: â€Å"Affirming  together unambiguously Christ’s unique mediation, which bears fruit in the life of the Church, we do not consider the practice of asking Mary and the saints to pray for us as communion dividing.†[31]

Functions of the Digestive System

Functions of the Digestive System Healthcare Support John Fenton PART A: Identify the parts of the Digestive System on the diagram overleaf(see Diagram 1) Explain the function of each part of the Digestive System identified in the diagram above ? Introduction: The branch of medicine focused on the digestive system is Gastroenterology. The digestive system is a set of organs that work on food and drink to break them down into substances the body can absorb so that our body can grow, repair itself, have energy to live life. The Digestive system also gets rid of the waste that the body cannot use. Some organs have a direct input into the breakdown of food where others have an indirect input in the breakdown. The digestive system is made up of 2 parts the alimentary canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important Accessory organs that help your body to digest food they are teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Mouth is where food and drink enter the body and it has many parts that aid in breaking up the food. The teeth which there is 32 of them made up of incisors canine and molars which cut and tear the food breaking it into smaller pieces (mechanical digestion) the tongue moisten the food with mucus and the saliva glands secrete saliva to help break it up into a pulp and amylase work on starch to break it down.so as the food leaves the mouth to go down the throat(pharynx) it is formed into a bolus or pulp which makes swallowing easier. At the top of the larynx there is a flap called the epiglottis which prevents food going towards the lungs but instead letting into the esophagus. Esophagus or windpipe is a muscular tube connecting the throat to the stomach this foodpipe forces the food down to the stomach using muscular waves called peristalsis and along with mucus from the esophagus. At the end of the esophagus there is the cardiac sphincter that allows the bolus into the stomach but prevents the food going back up the esophagus. Stomach: It is C shaped bag that hold food until it is ready to go into the small intestine. The stomach release hydrochloric acid which aid digestion but kills bacteria. The stomach mixes and churns the food with the help of the wave like muscles(peristalsis) and enzymes help to chemically break down the food when food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter it is creamy and is called chime. Small Intestine: It is 7 metre long and it is like a coiled hose and is made up of 3 parts the duodenum, jejunum ileum 90% of the digestion both chemical and mechanical takes place here and some absorption into the bloodstream .The liver produces bile and sends it to the gall bladder and then empties the bile into the duodenum and pancreatic juices are also go into the duodenum in order to help in the breakdown of food. There is villa in the walls of the small intestine which makes absorption into the bloodstream possible. Large Intestine: is a long, thick tube about 2 Â ½ inches in diameter and about 5 feet long. It wraps around the small intestine. It has 3 parts ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon. The large intestine receives undigested food from the small intestine and reabsorbs water back into the bloodstream from the faeces. Some undigested carbohydrates cannot be absorbed and form part of the waste that needs to leave the body. There are bacteria in the large intestine which make important substance called vitamin K. Faeces in the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal. The liver is the largest gland in the body it is soft and reddish and brown in colour. It is not considered as a direct part of the digestive system. It produces bile that aids in digestion by breaking down material and help creating waste products that will later need to be eliminated from the body. It destroys harmful bacteria that come from the digestive tract and it stores important vitamins that is in the food The gall bladder is a pear shaped sac attached by the cystic and bile ducts to the liver, stores bile which is made by the liver in a concentrated form until it is needed. the lining has many folds.it secretes the bile when it is needed.it is a thick liquid. The Pancreas is a greyish pink gland organ shaped like a fish it is connected to the duodenum at its tail. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine to complete the chemical digestion. The cells of the pancreas are divided into the islets of Langerhans(which produce insulin glucagon) help regulate the sugars in the blood pancreatic juice help to breakdown food. The juices contain lipose, amylase, trysin. Appendix: Is between the small and large intestine it a thin tube 4inches long, it is not known what its function is but it is suggested that it stores good bacteria. Rectum: Is 12cm long it is always empty except when it receives the contents of the colon(faeces) which it stores until it is excreted from the body through the anus. Anus:This is where the faeces leave the body it contains 2 muscles one involuntarily and the other voluntarily which means faeces can be held inside until the person is ready to excrete. The functions of the digestive system. are now complete they are ingestion, digestion, propulsion, absorption and elimination.(Course Notes (2015) (Tucker, 2012) Outline the composition of Proteins, Fats and Carbohydrates, and explain how each of them are digested and absorbed by the body? Introduction; All the food we eat needs to be broken down by the body in order for the body to be able to use it. Our diet has to be balanced in order that our body received the correct nutrients necessary for it to be maintained and for our bodies to function properly. The food pyramid outlines the components necessary for balanced healthy diet. See diagram below that helps us to understand the foods that contain Proteins Carbohydrates and fats and how they are beneficial to the body. (Course Notes (2015) (Tucker, 2012) Type Source Function Digested by Body Absorbed by the body Proteins eg Beans,fish,Cheese, Chicken, Meat Repair Maintain Body (Building blocks) Source of Energy for body Create some Hormones eg Insulin Stores Moves Molecules Creates Antibodies to prevent infection Important Enzymes The Enzymes Pepsin from Pancreas/Stomach/Small Intestine. As Amino Acids Fats eg Chocolate,milk,Butter, Olive Oil,Nuts. Provides Vitamins A,D,E,K. Insulates the body sustains body Temperature. Turns Fat into Energy Lipase Enzymes breakdown fat in small intestine Fatty Acids Glycerol Carbohydrates eg Potatoes, Cereal,bread Main Source of fuel. Easily used by the body for Energy. Stored in some Organs for use later. Important in Intestine and helps in waste Elimination Pancreatic Amylase works on Carbohydrates in the Duodenum As Monosaccharides PART B: Draw a diagram of a typical cell, and state the function of each of it’s Organelles.(See Diagram 2) Introduction: The cell is the smallest living unit there are 50 trillion cells in the human body that cannot be seen by the naked eye. Cells vary in shape and size and each part in a cell has a job to do which contribute to the function of the cell. A group of similar cells working together form tissue and a number of tissues make up an organ and a number of organs make up an organ system like the digestive system and when these systems work together the result is an individual with all system working together. Below is outlined the main components of an animal cell. Cell Membrane: Regulates and controls transport in(food Oxygen) and out(CO2 Waste) of the cell and also provides a boundary around the cell. Cytoplasm is a gel like material that lies between the cell membrane and the nucleus, contains water and nutrients and protects the cell. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: It has bumpy tissue and produces and moves proteins and hormones around the cell. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: making and distributing molecules depending on the type of cell with a smooth surface. Ribsomes: They are a circle shape and they build protein from amino acids for the cell. Golgi Body: It gathers simple molecules makes them into more complex molecules then packages them into vesicles and then either holds onto the material or sends it out of the cell. Mitochondria: The Powerhouse of the cell as they provide the energy for the cell. The DNA is also found here.it breaks down food and it releases energy to the cell. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is produced here and it powers the cells processes. Neuclear Membrane: holds substances inside the Nucleus allows material in and out between nucleus and cytoplasm.it is a protection layer for the nucleus. Neuleous:The main parts are DNA,RNA and proteins, the main function is helping in making ribosomes. Nucleus is a fibrous material, it is the control centre of the cell. It contains chromosomes with the DNA and materials leave the nucleus through the pores. Lysosomes: The disposal system of the cell, they breakdown complex proteins into simplier structures.it digests waste material and helps repair damage to the cell. Cilla: Is a hair like structure on the cell membrane moves substances along the surface of the cell and also helps to move the cell.(Course Notes (2015). Classify tissues into the four main groups; epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous, give an example of each ? (Table format will suffice) Introduction: The study of tissue is called histology. Tissues are the collection of cells with a similar structure and function. When the tissues work together they form into an organ. There are 4 types mentioned in table below. (Tucker, 2012) Type: Function: Example: Epithelial Tissue – covers body surfaces lines hollow organs Absorbs/Protects/Secretes/Filters Skin,Lines of organs body cavities ducts in glands,Intestines Connective Tissue – connects all other tissue in the body Gives support Rigidity to the body. Transports Oxygen Co2 in the body. Provide a cushion where bones meet Connecting Supporting other tissues Helps retain heat in the body Protects against disease Stretch Recoil Outer Protection of Organs Bones Cartilage Blood Areolar Adipose Lymphoid Yellow Elastic White Fibrous Muscle Tissue – bound together in bundles made up of water, proteins, fats,mineral salts, glycogen Mechanical digestion Body Movement Moves blood, food and waste through organs of body Smooth-Organ Walls –Involuntarily(not straited) Skeletal –Arms Legs – Voluntarily(striated) Cardiac – Heart Wall – Involuntarily (striated) Nervous Tissue made up of neurons neuralgia Controls transmit the impulses between the body organs via the neurons which are nerve cells Brain,Spinal Cord Nerves Explain the difference between benign and malignant tumours ? Benign Tumours: are not cancerous but are a mass of tissue that grow in an uncontrolled way but they can be removed. They do not spread to any other parts of the body and can be quite painful. Malignant Tumours: they are cancerous and they include cells that grow out of control and they often invade other cells and spread to other parts of the body. When a malignant tumour is removed there is a possibility that cancer will reappear in another part of the body for example a malignant tumour in the pancreas may reappear in the liver.(Course Notes (2015). PART C: Label the urinary system using the diagram overleaf. (See diagram 3) Explain the structure and function of each element of the Urinary System ? (5 marks) Introduction to Urinary System: Theurinary systemhelps get rid of waste product called urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. The kidney is bean shaped and 11cm long. 25% of the blood that is in circulation goes through the kidneys there are 2 of them and they are reddish brown in colour it is made up of cortex on the outside and the medulla on the inside. Each kidney has on its surface more than a million twisted tubes called nephrons. The function of the kidneys is to filter out waste and toxins, reabsorb nutrients such as glucose and protein and then excrete waste. It is also responsible for osmoregulation which balances water and salts in the blood., Ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder and when there is fluid in them it makes the urine flow towards the bladder like the kidney there are 2 of them one attached to each kidney. The walls are thick and are able to contract they are situated between the kidneys and the bladder. Bladder it is a muscular sac like organ situated between ureter and urethra.it can expand when urine goes into it and then contract when urine leaves it. Its function is to store urine and send a message to the brain when it needs to be emptied. Urethra is a narrow tube longer in men that women its function is to take urine from the body to the outside but also takes semen to outside in men.(Course Notes (2015). Draw the structure of a Nephron and explain how it produces urine Diagram 4 ? (Google Images) There are over 2 million nephrons in the kidneys of an adult. (Tucker, 2012) There are a several structures that make up the nephron. The Glomerulus are tiny capillaries that look like a ball of wool and act as sieve where the blood is filtered. The glomerulus is surrounded by the Bowman’s Capsule. The Bowman’s capsule absorbs the material that is filtered from the glomerulus. As a result of the filtration process useful substances flow into the Tubule and from there they are reabsorbed into the bloodstream.The remaining substances in the tubule and any water that is useful is absorbed into the bloodstream. The material that is leftover is 95% water and cannot be used by the body it is called urine and this needs to be eliminated from the body. The urine moves from the tubule to the ureter. see diagram attached on separate sheet Name and explain three diseases / disorders which affect the urinary system ? Kidney Stones: The medical name for stones in the kidneys is Nephrolithiasis. It occurs when a solid mass of material forms together within the renal pelvis, bladder or ureters, After the Kidney stone has formed it will try to pass out in the urine but because of its size it will not be able to do so and this can cause severe pain in the abdomen or groin. There are several procedures to remove or break them down. Depending on the size will determine the treatment required if they are small your GP can give you medication that will reduce the kidney stone in size and then allow them to be passed out in the urine if they are much larger surgery may be required. This condition happens more frequently in men than in women. Urethritis:Is the swelling of the urethra resulting in a very painful discharge of urine sometimes caused by infection. There is 2 types of urethritis Gonococcal and nonspecific urethritis and this is caused by a big number of bacteria, yeast or chlamydia, it is diagnosed by sending a sample of a discharge from the urethra to the lab. Treatment will depend on the cause and appropriate antibiotics would clear the problem. Pyelonephritis is a bacterial or viral infection of the kidney and it can spread if not treated. People most at risk for pyelonephritis are those who have a bladder infection or a problem in the urinary tract. the possible symptoms are painful urination, groin pain, nausea and fever. In most cases the bacterial infection can be treated by antibiotics, it can be diagnosed in a variety of different ways through analysis of a urine sample and looking for the presence of white blood cells and bacteria, and through Ultrasound. http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/kidney-disease/pyelonephritis-kidney-infection/Pages/index.aspx#1 Bibliography/References Tucker, L., 2012. An Introductory Guide to Anatomy Physiology. 4th ed. London: EMS Publishing. John FentonPage 1

Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites: Literature Review

Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites: Literature Review Literature Survey- Based on Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites. 1]Shilpa P.S et al They studied the effect of reinforcement of Boron Carbide with the Al2024. By adopting stir casting technique fabricated the specimen by varying the wt% of Boron Carbide. The specimens are developed as per the ASTM. In the end they come to know that as the reinforcement Boron Carbide increased by wt% increases the Hardness, Tensile strength and Yield strength. The percentage of elongation decreases with the increase of Boron Carbide in the composition. 2]F.Abdi et al-They investigated the effect of 5 wt% of TiB2 as a reinforcement with the Al356.1 metal matrix at various temperature i.e.750c, 850c, 950c using stir casting technique. They found that at temperature 950c shows best result s for Tensile strength and Hardness and the TiB2 particles are homogenously distributed. 3]Sandeep Kumar Ravesh et al(C)-They investigated the effect of the various weight fraction of SiC i.e.2.5%,5%,7.5% and 10% and 5% flyash is reinforced with Aluminium 6061 metal matrix composite by using the stir casting method. They observed that Tensile strength, Harness and Impact strength increased with the increase in weight fraction of SiC particle. A best tensile strength 115 N/mm2, hardness 93RHN and toughness value 7.8 for 10% SiC and 5% flyash reinforced composite material was obtained. 4]K.L.Meena et al(D)-They investigated the mechanical properties of the   developed SiC reinforced with Al6063 metal matrix composite material using Melt stirring technique where the experiment was carried out by varying the reinforcement particle size such as 200 mesh, 300 mesh, 400 mesh with the different weight percentage i.e..5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of SiC particle reinforced material. The stirring process was carried out at the speed of 200rpm using the graphite impeller for a period of 15min. A homogenous dispersion of SiC particle in the aluminium matrix was observed. The tensile strength, hardness and yield strength were improved with the enlargement of particulate size and weight percentage of SiC. Percentage reduction area and percentage elongation and impact strength decreases as the increase in reinforced particle size and weight percentage of SiC particle. Maximum hardness (HRB) 83 and impact strength 37.01 Nm was achieved. 5]H.G.Rana et al-They investigated the mechanical properties and wear properties of Al7075 with the reinforcement of Boron Carbide. They concluded that using the using Friction Stir casting the fabricated specimens provides uniform mixing and enhances the tensile strength and hardness. Hence the microstructure are studied with the help of Image analyser. Based on Zirconia as Reinforcement. 6]Ram Narayan et al They investigated the effect of flyash and zirconia with the mechanical properties of Aluminium 6061 alloy composite samples developed by using the technique Stir casting. They developed the specimen by varying the zirconia (5% and 10%) and kept the flyash 10% as a fixed percentage by weight fraction. They observed that due to the presence of flyash and zirconia Hardness and Tensile strength was increased where the elongation decreased as compared to the unreinforced aluminium. The characterization will be done using the scanning the electron microscope machine and image analyser. 7]S. Roseline et al They observed the mechanical properties of aluminium alloy mmc with the reinforcement of fused Zirconia alumina. They developed the specimens by varying by the weight fraction by percentage. They evaluated the mechanical properties which indicates the variations in the Hardness, Tensile strength and Impact strength. The optimum result for mechanical properties found on the reinforcement to be 90 and 10 by weight percentage of the matrix respectively. 8]Jithin Jose et al-They investigated the effect of flyash and zircon (zirconium silicate) with the mechanical properties of Aluminium 7075 alloy and the stir casting technique was adopted to develop the specimens by varying weight percentage .They after conducting the different test concluded that keeping the zircon at a fixed weight percentage and varying the flyash found that the wear rate decreases where the tensile strength and the hardness increases. 9]Adil Ahmed.S et al-They studied the incorporation of Zirconium Nano Particles in Al356.2.The stir casting technique was used for the development of composite specimen where the Al356.2 is heated at around 750c and the Zirconium Nano particles are added .Mechanical properties are increased for 15wt% of reinforcement particle developed at 750c shows homogenous reinforcement particle and through using the Scanning Electron Microscope the microstructure of the specimen shows homogenous reinforcement. 10]J.Jenix Rino et al-They investigated the mechanical properties of Aluminium 6063 alloy composite enhance i.e. strengthened by the addition of alumina particle and zircon sand with an overall reinforcement in the Al6063 material matrix. They observed the Hardness and Tensile strength of the composite having higher value at the composite developed specimen, which having reinforcement mixture of 4wt%ZrSiO4+4wt% Al2O3. 11]K.B. Girisha et al-They studied the effect of various weight fraction of zirconium oxide nanoparticle i.e. 0.5%,1%,1.5% and 2% reinforced with Al356.1 metal matrix composite by using stir casting technique. Here they observed that particle agglomeration in the composite is due to high amount of zirconium oxide nanoparticle. Hardness and wear properties are increased as the increase in weight fraction of zirconium dioxide nanoparticle. 12]M.A.Baghchesara et al They studied the mechanical properties of developed composite specimen using the stir casting method where they considered zircon and TiB2 ceramic particles with size 1 micron and the temperature 750c respectively. The microstructure were studied by using scanning electron microscopy and hence the dispersion of reinforcement as noted. Situation of compounds of the developed specimen were examined by XRD. The end results shows mechanical properties and microstructure behavior of composite was improved compared to the monolithic alloy. Microstructures of the composites in as cast conditions shows uniform distribution of the particles and reveals the better bending in case of zircon reinforced composites compared to the TiB2 composites. But increase in the amount of reinforcement shows better conditions in case of TiB2 reinforced composites. Based On Flyash with Aluminium- 13] H.C. Anilkumar et al-They investigated the mechanical properties of Al 6061 reinforced by flyash. They fabricated the composite specimens using the stir casting method. They developed three sets of composites with particle size of flyash of 4-25,45-50 and 75-100 µm was used. The three set of composites are developed by varying weight fraction of 10%, 15% and 20%. The mechanical properties are like Tensile strength, Compressive strength, hardness and Ductility are studied. They found that increase of particle size of flyash decreases tensile strength, compressive strength and hardness of the developed specimens. They also find that by increase of weight fraction of flyash increases compressive strength ultimate tensile strength, hardness but decreases with increase of flyash particle size. 14]Muruganandhan.P et al-They investigated the effect of flyash reinforced with Al6061.By varying the wt% of flyash using the stir casting method the specimens was developed. The found that increase of flyash increase the mechanical properties upto 20% of fly ash in the metal matrix but the corrosion resistance decreases with increase of flyash addition. 15] M.Sankar-They investigated the Silicon carbide and Flyash reinforced with the Aluminium 6061 alloy.They developed the specimens using the stir casting method.They found that as the reinforcement contents increased in the matrix material, the composites hardness also increased. Tensile strength decreased with increased amount of reinforcement.   The wear rate of the composites reduced with increased weight percentages of the reinforcements. Who was Responsible for the Cold War? Who was Responsible for the Cold War? When looking at the issue of who was responsible for the cold war, we have to look at what the relationship between the United States and USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was like before the start of World War Two. By the end of the nineteenth century Marxism in Western Europe was becoming more and more national. The imperial implications of both Marxist thought and Russian history provide the broad background and context for understanding soviet involvement in cold war. The soviet worldwide had been shaped by a history that was dramatically different from that of the west  [1]  . For example the Bolshevik revolution, the civil war, and the experience of World War two all contributed to a unique soviet perspective. Furthermore after the revolution of 1917, soviet Russia assumed the responsibility of spreading the Marxist message. Stalin seen himself as the keeper of the Marxist faith, it would emancipate mankind  [2]  . In addition historians such as Zubok and Const antine suggest that history gave the Russians the reason to see themselves as saviours of the world. Due to the events that occurred before the Cold War we can see this. Furthermore historians believed that each of them would make his own intricate cold war journey, guided by the two misleading suns of empire and revolution. Many historians believe that it was because, the United States and USSR ideologies were so different and believed that to be the underlying cause for their fear of one another. For example Russia was communist which put the needs of the state ahead of personal human rights and was ruled by a dictator. The USA was a capitalist democracy which valued freedom and believed that communism was something to fear. Americans saw themselves as champions of the free world, and tyrants such as Stalin represented everything the United States opposed. At the same time, the Soviets, who believed that capitalism exploited the masses, saw the United States as the oppressor. To emphasise the difference between the two nations we can see this by looking at their visions of the world. For example Stalin saw the world as divided into two camps: imperialist and capitalist regimes on the one hand, and the Communist and progressive world on the other. In 1947, President Harry Truman also spoke of two diamet rically opposed systems: one free and the other bent on subjugating other nations. Although World War Two was meant to be the War to end all wars it was not, the repercussions and the aftermath of what the war had caused, it just lead to a more apprehensive atmosphere all over the world, and as we can see this was defiantly the case when considering the relationship between the US and USSR. Although relations went on a downward spiral after World War Two it was not always this way, they were once allies during World War Two. However things changed after WW2, once the threat of Hitler was over, they became fearful of each other, Russias hatred for capitalism deepened when they was not rewarded for their efforts during World War Two, instead they became focused back on by the world that they was the threat the red scare began to intensify. Moreover historians have suggested that because of the enormous sacrifice of the Russian people in the Second World War, had led to the soviet lea ders to believe that the allies owed them a great deal. The cold war emerged from the ruins of world war two  [3]  Stalin expected to be rewarded for their contribution in the war especially when Russia lost 27 million people. His primary task was to regain the territories lost to Russia during the war and revolution from 1915 to 1921: the Baltics, Finland, Poland, and Bessarabia. This goal was virtually fulfilled by the end of 1945. The Cold War was a period of East-West competition, tension, and conflict short of full-scale war. It was characterized by mutual perceptions of hostile intention between military-political alliances or blocs, both systems believed that they were doing the right thing. The events that happened before and after World War two had an irreversible impact on how both of these countries perceived one another. Furthermore Stalins foreign policies contributed an enormous amount to the tensions of the Cold War. His aim, was to take advantage of the military situation in post-war Europe to strengthen Russian influence, this was perceived to be a threat to the US and everything they stood for. Stalin was highly effective in his goal to gain territory, with victories for example in Poland and Romania. To the western world, this success looked as if it were the beginning of a series of Russian aggressions. The aggressive expansion in Eastern Europe was one of the main reasons for the cause of the cold war. Therefore it can be questioned that if the Soviets had not adopted the expansionist policy, then the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan may not have been initiated to keep Stalin and his spread of communism at bay. Furthermore Stalins own persona could be seen as another cause for the cold war, for example when Ivan Maisky and Maxim Litvinov were appointed in 1943. Maisky wrote that the main soviet goal after the war would be to ensure a durable peace enough for the USSR to become so powerful that no combination of powers in Europe or in Asia could even think of threatening her  [4]  . This suggest that even though Russia had not got the rewards they was expecting from World War two and the contribution of the west in the civil war in 1918 all contributed to Stalins view on spreading Communism and being strong enough to not be threatened or have a fear of being invaded by any other country. In addition Stalins actions to wanting to spread communism throughout the world, lead to policies such as the china policy which historian Odd Arne Westad came to the conclusion that Joseph Stalin china policy in the fall of 1945 was as aimless and incoherent as his European policy. However much he hoped to avoid post war confrontation with the United States, Stalin could not make his mind how to achieve this aim.  [5]  This view gives important insight into the impact of Stalins persona on the origins of the cold war. In addition Historians have also wondered whether another cause for the cold war was Stalins poor diplomacy. For example the diplomatic pressure he put on turkey caused him great problems with the west and later in 1948 his attempt his attempt to remove Tito in Yugoslavia by means of communist democracy backfired and only weakened their position. The errors Stalin made and the policies he created showed him to be aggressive and wanting to expand USSRS borders spreading they way of communism. This ultimately created more of a hysteria and fear in US, therefore being a main contributor to the cause of the Cold War. In addition when the Western democracies and the Soviet Union met up to discuss World War II, and the nature of the post-war settlement at conferences in Tehran 1943, Yalta February 1945, and Potsdam July-August 1945. At these conferences the Soviets agreed to allow the nations of Eastern Europe to choose their own governments in free elections. Stalin agreed to the condition only because he believed that these newly liberated nations would see the Soviet Union as their savoir and create their own Communist governments. When they failed to do so, Stalin violated the agreement by wiping out all opposition to communism in these nations and setting up his own governments in Eastern Europe, causing the situation to intensify. To make the situation worse, Stalin deepened the estrangement between the United States and the Soviet Union when he asserted in 1946 that World War II was an unavoidable and inevitable consequence of capitalist imperialism and implied that such a war might reoccur. This resulted in an increase in world spread fear of communism due to Stain basically going towards the thought of another World war, which could have lead to a nuclear war. In addition many of the tensions that existed in the Cold War can be attributed to Stalins policy of Soviet expansion. It is necessary to consider that the role of Stalin can be seen as a catalyst to the Cold War Furthermore the situation involving Poland was that Poland had always been the key state needed from which to launch an attack against Russia. He also wanted Poland to have a pro-Soviet government. Therefore after some time, he set up a communist government in Poland. He said that his control of Eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks to the west it appeared to them that Russias attitude went against all of the promises that Stalin had made at Yalta mainly that Stalin would permit free elections in the eastern European states. Russia argued that it needed to maintain a sphere of influence in the area for security reasons. This caused further anxiety over Stalins policy of expansion. This then lead to the West to introduce the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, both of which sought to arrest the spread of communism. The initiation of the Marshall plan for European recovery, however from Stalins point of view the marshal plan was a large scale attempt by the United States to gain lasting influence in Europe. The marshell plan was a serious challenge to Stalin vision of a future Europe as well as to German- soviet relations. Thus he had to protect his borders but by doing so it caused him to look like an aggressive bully towards countries that would not follow his lead. For example when leadership of Czechoslovakia hesitated before ending their participation in the Marshall plan it outraged Stalin, he told Czechoslovakia immediately to cancel the plans to receive aid from the US, Gottwald (leader of Czechoslovakia) complied. This just shows the intimidation Stalin was willing to put other nations through to keep them communist and not wade to the side of the US. The nations that complied with Stalin and agreed not to participate in the Marshall plan, their economies deteriorated, while those of th e western European states began to recover and see improvement in their economies. To Stalin this was a challenge of his authority in Eastern Europe, therefore his next actions was to focus on Czechoslovakia, the communist group in Prague carried out a coup in February of 1948. Shortly after the coup the Czech president was replaced by the leader of the Czech communist party, Gottwald. Furthermore it was incidents like these that caused outrage in the western world, the intimidation of another country to not take a chance that could help their economy, to stop them countries from distracting from the way of communism rather than capitalism. Thus if Russia had not behaved and acted this way due to their expansion policy , it may not have ever got out of control and there would have been no need to implement the Marshall plan which lead to the implementation of the Truman Doctrine. To further Americas fear of communism, due to their aggressive foreign policy, between 1943-46 most western European Communist parties were at a peak in the years immediately following World War Two. The French Communist Party, for example, won almost 30% of the vote in 1946 elections. Greece was in crisis they were at the brink of civil war which finally occurred in 1946 after the Greek communists tried to seize power in 1944 due to a rise in communist leg guerrillas. This resulted in an economic crisis which at the time was being supported by Britain however this was no longer possible. Therefore America stepped in because they feared that the people would look more towards communism through desperation. This then resulted in the introduction of the Truman Doctrine in March, 1947. The Truman doctrine announced that was to be given to Greece and Turkey in the stated context of a general war against communism. The US gives $400 million as aid to help Greece in their economic crisis. However it can be said that in many ways, the Truman Doctrine marked the formal declaration of the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union .It also solidified the United States position regarding containment. However, even though this suggests that US started the war, but if Russia had not been aggressively expanding their empire and spreading communism then it would not have caused the US to intervene and introduce the Truman doctrine due to their fear of communism. By 1946, the United States and Britain were making every effort to unify all of Germany under western rule. The Soviet Union responded by consolidating its grip on Europe by creating satellite states in 1946 and 1947. One by one, communist governments, loyal to Moscow, were set up in Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Stalin used Soviet communism to dominate half of Europe. This created more of a mistrust in the USSR and the US relations resulting in the build up to the Cold War, and evidently showing that the roots of the problem was the Russias expansion policy. In relation to the previous point made to show Russias expansion during the time leading up to the Cold war, we have to look at Winston Churchill Iron Curtain. Churchill said that From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and Eastern Europe -Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia.  [6]  Therefore showing the scale of how fast Russia was expanding through Eastern Europe. It also emphasis the split between Russia and the US creating more of an estranged relationship between the two super powers, because it is showing the spread of communism and how quick it was occurring. The United States feared the most was the Red Scare which was becoming more serious with each invasion of the countries within Eastern Europe. Stalin also set up the Berlin Blockade with the idea that he could push western power out of Eastern Berlin, which only escalated the situation. The cold War was the brave and essential response of free men to Communist aggression.  [7]  Schlesinger believes that the soviets were wrong and that the USA was trying to stop the USSR from going any further. Another view is T.A. Bailey who also believed that the Soviets were to blame; he thinks that they always had one more plan for world domination up their sleeves. In addition further actions took by Stalin which was contributing to the end result in being the cold war, was the Berlin Blockade on the 24th June 1948. Stalin decided to blockade West Berlin by cutting off road and rail links. To break the blockade armed forces would have to smash the blockade, however this would be seen as an act of war which Stalin new US wouldnt do. He believed they would abandon their zones and leave the whole of Berlin in soviet hands. However Stalin failed to gain control of Berlin. Although he failed in this case, it still antagonised America causing them to retaliate. Therefore due to Stalin wanting to gain a foot hold in Europe and to keep aggressively expanding. This shows that each action Stalin made were all catalysts in causing the Cold War. In addition the relationship between Russia and the US escalated further to the extent were another proxy war was occurring, which was the Korean War (1950- 1953). The Korean War was a military conflict between the Republic of Korea, supported by the United Nations, and the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea and Peoples Republic of China (PRC), with air support from the Soviet Union. The war began on 25 June 1950 it was a result of the political division of Korea by agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War. In 1945, following the surrender of Japan, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th Parallel, with United States troops, occupying the southern part and Soviet troops occupying the northern part. It was soviets foreign policy that lead to them being involved in the Korean War however it was China who physically participated in the war, where as Russia was acting behind the scenes to not actually cause a physical war between them and the US. By being involved in the war it just caused the US to be more wary of Russia and showed how much influence and power the USSR had gained to have that control over China and other countries that were also communist. After looking at the events leading up to the cold war, the short term and long term causes when focusing on the US perspective we see that their view was flawed because they feared what they did not understand, they did not understand how a country could be ran under a communist government and still work, especially when the US system was capitalist. The USs response was based on their misunderstanding and fear of USSR which was more commonly known as the red scare. For example the US and Britain believed that just before WW2 they seen the USSR as more of a threat than Hitler at that time. Overall some historians such as the Traditionalist believed that Russia was to blame for the Cold War. They believed that the Soviet-led governments sought to overthrow existing capitalist governments, which can be reinforced by the fact that Russias foreign policy was aggressive expansion. In addition the US and its allies were merely responding to the threats of the Soviet Union, as we can see by the Truman doctrine. I agree with traditionalists idea due to the fact that Stalin and his successors were convinced that the legitimacy of their rule depended on validating Marxist-Leninist predictions of world revolution. If they believed that they would only succeed when these predictions were completed then they were to blame for the cold war. Russia actions of aggressive expansion throughout Eastern Europe support this.